SDG Target #9.b

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.b:

Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities

Target 9.b has one indicator:

  • Indicator 9.b.1: Proportion of medium and high-tech industry value added in total value added

The valued added from manufacturing in medium and high-tech industries implies an elevated level of R&D expenditure. The world leader by share of GDP from medium and high-tech value added as of 2020 is Singapore with 82%. Switzerland, South Korea, Qatar, and Germany each have a 60-65% share in their respective GDP’s. The world’s share is 45%. This hasn't changed since 2015. This is also the case with the least developed countries, which have a 10% share of their GDP for medium and high-tech industry value-added.

SDG Target #9.a

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.a:

Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States

Target 9.a has one indicator:

  • Indicator 9.a.1: Total official international support (official development assistance plus other official flows) to infrastructure

The biggest recipient country for aid earmarked for infrastructure as of 2021 was India, which received $7.51 billion.

Developing regions received aid of $64 billion for infrastructure in 2021, the same figure at the start of the SDG period in 2015. Infrastructure aid has also remained the same as 2015 for Africa, the least developed countries and small island states. Africa received $15 billion, the LDCs $11 billion and the SIDS close to $2 billion.

SDG Target #9.5

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.5:

Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending

Target 9.5 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 9.5.1: Research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP 

  • Indicator 9.5.2: Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants 

We can measure innovations in science and technology which allow the capacity of the industries to grow and countries to develop. One of the clearest measures is R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP. The greatest spenders are the high-income countries, as well as China. But for the sake of this target, we want the developing countries to foster science and technology innovations. Spending on R&D as a share of the global world product is 2.7% as of 2021, which has risen a fractional amount since the start of the SDG period. This is an impressive share when considering its larger than China’s share, itself one of the leaders. Though it's still half of the leader, Israel, who has a 5.6% share.

The leaders for the measure of researchers in a country’s population comports with R&D expenditure. The worldwide total as of 2018 was 1,525 researchers per million people, a slight increase since 2015 from 1,385 per million. The world leader as of 2021 is South Korea with 9,082 researchers per million in the population. Korea's competitor for world leader in research, Israel, didn’t have data for this year for comparison.

SDG Target #9.4

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.4:

By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities

Target 9.4 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 9.4.1: CO2 emission per unit of value added 

Carbon dioxide is an 80% share of all greenhouse gas emissions from the energy used to power industrial processes, so it’s the focus on this indicator. 

As of 2018, the world emits 320 grams of carbon dioxide per dollar of value-added in the manufacturing sector. This figure hasn't unchanged since the most recent data around the adoption of the SDGs. The country with the most emissions per dollar of manufacturing value-added is Trinidad and Tobago with 1.16kg. Following is Mongolia with 1.09kg per dollar and North Korea with 1.18kg.

SDG Target #9.2

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.2:

Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries

Target 9.2 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 9.2.1: Manufacturing value added as a proportion of GDP and per capita 

  • Indicator 9.2.2: Manufacturing employment as a proportion of total employment 

Manufacturing value added is the dollar value of all the manufacturing output, minus any inputs. The world leader in manufacturing as a proportion of GDP as of 2022 is Ireland, with 38%, followed by Algeria, with 35%. Manufacturing as a part of gross world product was 16% in 2022, about the same since 2015 at the adoption of the SDGs. The more an economy develops, the further it tends to move away from manufacturing toward services. In the least developed countries, their economies instead have a high proportion of primary industry. Examples are agriculture, forestry, fishing, and resource extraction, which offer less value-added. This target has asked for manufacturing to double in the least developed countries. As a proxy for the least developed countries, manufacturing was 11% of the share of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa, up only 1% since the adoption of the Goals. In South Asia, manufacturing is 14% of the region’s GDP, a 1% decrease since 2015.

The leader in employment in manufacturing as a share of all employment is China, consisting of 28% of all jobs as of 2021. The worldwide share is 13%, about the same since the adoption of the Goals. For the least developed countries, the share was 8%, again unchanged since 2015.

SDG Target #9.1

SDG #9 is to “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”

Within SDG #9 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 9.1:

Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all

Target 9.1 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 9.1.1: Proportion of the rural population who live within 2 km of an all-season road 

  • Indicator 9.1.2: Passenger and freight volumes, by mode of transport 

The measure of rural population within 2km of an all-season road is a proxy for the Rural Access Index. A measure for the quality of roads to help deem it “all-season” is the International Roughness Index.

The countries with the lowest proportion of their rural population within 2km of an all-season road in 2021 were: 

  • Madagascar

  • Zambia

  • Lesotho

  • UAE 

Each had less than 20% access.

It's crucial for countries to have transport networks to foster trade and economic development. Such infrastructure needs to encourage sustainable transport. This means accessible, but also decarbonised, whether land-based, maritime or aviation.

The leader in passenger transport by rail is China, with passengers travelling 975 billion kilometres in 2021. By aviation, China was also a leader, with passengers travelling 655 billion kilometres in 2021. China was second to the US, which had 1.11 trillion km’s of a global total of 3.63 billion kilometres.

Measuring air freight by tonnes of kilometres flown, the US and China again lead in 2021. They had 46 billion and 21 billion tonne-kilometres, out of a worldwide total of 219 billion.

SDG Target #8b

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.b:

By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization 

Target 8.b has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.b.1: Existence of a developed and operationalized national strategy for youth employment, as a distinct strategy or as part of a national employment strategy

This target looks at whether each country has implemented legislation and policies intended to create jobs for youth. 

As of 2022, a large swath of countries is implementing a national strategy.

The Global Jobs Pact was an initiative of the UN in partnership with trade unions and employer’s organisations.

SDG Target #8a

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.a:

Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries

Target 8.a has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.a.1: Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements  

Aid for Trade is an initiative of the World Trade Organization for high-income donor countries to help developing countries to trade to further their economic development.

An example of aid which might help towards this end is infrastructure, such as transport networks and utilities, which all enable economic activity.

For the high-income OECD countries which give development assistance, in reporting what they’ve given, we can also separate what they’ve given as intended for Aid for Trade. Based on this, the developing regions as a whole received $52.5 billion as Aid for Trade in 2021. This figure has gone up and down in the years since the adoption of the Goals in 2015, when it was $62 billion. For the least developed countries, 2021 Aid for Trade commitments were $18.8 billion. This has also varied year-on-year since 2015, when it was $19.8 billion. On sum, this trend has been missing Target 8.a’s aim to increase Aid for Trade support.

On the donor side, the largest 2021 commitments earmarked for Air for Trade came from Germany, giving $7.3 billion, and Japan, with $6.8 billion. 

SDG Target #8.10

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.10:

Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all

Target 8.10 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 8.10.1: (a) Number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults and (b) Number of automated teller machines (ATMs) per 100,000 adults

  • Indicator 8.10.2: Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider  

One aspect of social inclusion is financial inclusion. This has become much more accessible with the proliferation of digital payment platforms to give access.

Worldwide, the number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults was 11.2 as of 2021, about the same as 2015. For the same year, there were 39 ATMs per 100,000 people worldwide, a small increase from 36 in 2015.

The proportion of adults with a bank account or similar in 2021 was 76%, an increase since the Goals adoption of 62%.

SDG Target #8.9

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.9:

By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products

Target 8.9 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.9.1: Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate  

This target introduces us to the work of another of the UN agencies, UN Tourism.

Tourism direct GDP, as measured in this Target’s sole indicator is the value-added by all industries contributing to tourism.

The global share of tourism direct GDP as a proportion of gross world product is 2.54% as of 2021. This is lower than at the adoption of the SDGs in 2015, when it was 3.75%.

The world leaders among countries with data in the SDG period are Fiji with 12% in 2019. For those with more recent data up to 2021, the leaders were Greece and UAE with 6%.

SDG Target #8.8

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.8:

Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment

Target 8.8 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 8.8.1: Fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers, by sex and migrant status

  • Indicator 8.8.2: Level of national compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status

This target gets us a little closer to understanding what SDG #8 means by “decent work.” We can measure decent work, like we can with all topics covered in the SDG targets and indicators. We need work to be decent to achieve the other Goals relating to poverty reduction and to fulfil the equality aspirations of the SDGs. For all work to be safe and secure helps to further this aim.

In an earlier instalment in this series, we explored two treaties which put the Universal Declaration of Human Rights into effect. Article 22 of one of these, the ICCPR, enshrines freedom of association into international law by its parties: 

“Everyone shall have the right to freedom of association with others, including the right to form and join trade unions for the protection of his interests.”

Some of the International Labour Organization conventions which guide international labour law include:

Relevant human rights instruments adopted by the UN General Assembly include:

Also relevant are two protocols supplementing a UN convention against Transnational Organized Crime:

Many of the countries which may have been at highest risk of fatal occupational injuries don’t have data as of 2021. Though among those who do, the highest is Egypt, with 10 per 100,000 workers. For non-fatal occupational injuries, the highest is Costa Rica, with 9421 per 100,000 workers.

When measuring level of national compliance with labour rights, the world has scored 4.5 out of 0-10 measure, with 0 being the best. The worst performers as of 2021 were Iran and UAE with a score of 10, followed by China, scoring 9. 

SDG Target #8.7

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.6:

Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms

Target 8.7 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.7.1: Proportion and number of children aged 5–17 years engaged in child labour, by sex and age

First, at the time of writing, we’re six months shy of 2025, and haven’t ended child labour in all its forms, so this aspect of this target is already foregone.

This target encapsulates the work of several UN labour and human rights agreements protecting the welfare of children:

As of 2020, UNICEF estimated 160 million children worldwide were in child labour, with an 8.4 million increase in the preceding four years.

The countries with the highest rates of child labour among those with data as of 2022 were Chad with 31% and Togo with 33%. Disaggregated by sex, in Togo, more boys were in child labour than girls by 3%, and in Chad, the gender difference was 6%. The biggest gender gap among countries with 2022 data was Senegal, with 8% of girls in labour and a quarter of boys.

SDG Target #8.6

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.6:

By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training 

Target 8.6 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.6.1: Proportion of youth (aged 15–24 years) not in education, employment or training 

There aren’t yet any global figures for the proportion of youth not in education, employment, or training. Of those countries with data for this indicator, Niger and Afghanistan are the worst-performing, with 68% and 62%. Rather than the proportion reducing, in both countries it’s rise since 2014: in Niger from 25% and Afghanistan from 35%. The Netherlands is the leader with 2%, having reduced from 4.7% in 2014.

SDG Target #8.5

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.5:

By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value

Target 8.5 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 8.5.1: Average hourly earnings of employees, by sex, age, occupation and persons with disabilities

  • Indicator 8.5.2: Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities  

Only a couple dozen countries have data for employees’ average hourly earnings. The highest among them was Switzerland. By sex, the greatest difference was in South Korea, where the average hourly earnings of male employees of $23.96 and $15.91 for women.

The global unemployment rate as of 2022 was 5.3%, with gender differences only a fractional difference.

SDG Target #8.4

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.4:

Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead 

Target 8.4 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 8.4.1: Material Footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP

  • Indicator 8.4.2: Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP 

Material footprint is a measure of the tonnage of natural resources extracted from the Earth. This includes metal ores, fossil fuels, minerals or living matter from plants and animals. Many of these are finite and non-renewable resources.

By contrast, the concept of domestic material consumption is a measure of materials used within a country’s economy.

It’s important we understand that the economy, which is the basis upon which we all prosper, itself rests upon an environment foundation. This begs the question how is the environment to cope as we live on a planet with a spiking increase in resource use? What is the pathway out of this pattern, to unlink economic growth from scarce resource use and extraction?

The world’s material footprint per capita was 12.44t as of 2019, the same figure as 2015. Thus, there has been no improvement on this indicator, as the target has asked of us. Indicator 8.4.1 asked us to measure by GDP as well as per capita. The world’s material footprint in 2019 was 1.14kg per US dollar, with not much of a change since 2015.

The domestic material consumption per capita for the world was 12 tonnes as of 2019, about the same since 2015. The target asked for developed countries to take the lead. As a proxy, we can use Europe and Northern America. This region had 18t of domestic material consumption in 2019, which has also remained the same since the start of the SDGs.

The global domestic material consumption is equal to 1.13kg per dollar. Once more, this is little changed from 2015, with a similar trend for Europe and Northern America.

SDG Target #8.3

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.3:

Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services

Target 8.3 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.3.1: Proportion of informal employment in total employment, by sector and sex

Of the countries with data, many of the Least Developed Countries had greater than 80% of workers in non-agricultural informal work. The numbers are also high in the very populous countries India and Bangladesh, with 80% and 91% of workers in the informal sector. 

Much fewer countries have data for informal employment in the agriculture sector. This includes many of the countries with highest proportions of informality in non-agriculture. Developing countries with 2022 data had between 80-100% informal employment in agriculture.

The country with the greatest gender imbalance in the non-agricultural sector was Cote d'Ivoire. There, 79% of men were in informal employment and 93% of females. In agriculture, the biggest gender disparities among countries with data were in Europe. 31% of Serbian males compared to 68% of women were in informal employment, and 42% of males and 78% of women in Poland. 

SDG Target #8.2

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.1:

Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries

Target 8.1 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.1.1: Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita 

This target and indicator ask for us to aim for an increase of GDP, but also to keep pace with price rises from inflation, but also population growth. If GDP rises 7%, but so does the population growth, the actual rise in GDP cancels out. Likewise, if the GDP rises 7% but the inflation rate is 4%, then the GDP growth is only 3%.

The per capita annual growth rate for the world economy in 2022 was 2.28%, an increase from 1.86% in 2015, the year of the SDGs adoption. In the years following 2015, there was a dip in 2016 to 1.60%, followed by an increase in 2017, a tiny dip in 2018, a drop in 2019 to 1.51%, then a big drop in 2020 to -4.03%. 2021 saw a 5.31% rise, before an almost halving in 2022.

In 2022, the only Least Developed Countries with GDP growth rates above 7% was Niger with 7.43%

SDG Target #8.1

SDG #8 is to “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

Within SDG #8 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 8.1:

Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries

Target 8.1 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 8.1.1: Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita 

This target and indicator ask for us to aim for an increase of GDP, but also to keep pace with price rises from inflation, but also population growth. If GDP rises 7%, but so does the population growth, the actual rise in GDP cancels out. Likewise, if the GDP rises 7% but the inflation rate is 4%, then the GDP growth is only 3%.

The per capita annual growth rate for the world economy in 2022 was 2.28%, an increase from 1.86% in 2015, the year of the SDGs adoption. In the years following 2015, there was a dip in 2016 to 1.60%, followed by an increase in 2017, a tiny dip in 2018, a drop in 2019 to 1.51%, then a big drop in 2020 to -4.03%. 2021 saw a 5.31% rise, before an almost halving in 2022.

In 2022, the only Least Developed Countries with GDP growth rates above 7% was Niger with 7.43%

SDG Target #7.b

SDG #7 is to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”

Within SDG #7 are 5 targets, of which we here focus on Target 7.b:

By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support

Target 7.b has one indicator:

  • Indicator 7.b.1: Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing and developed countries (in watts per capita)

The least developed countries face the prospects of the largest growth in population in the years to come. The existing dearth of energy for these countries takes on a double importance for their eventual access to be renewable. What if it's not, and such energy access comes from fossil fuels? The fight against climate change would be all but lost to accommodate the increase in living standards. This isn’t fair, to deprive such developing countries from access, thus its vital access comes via renewable energy

Th global capacity of renewable energy as of 2021 was 268 watts per capita, an increase from 154 watts per capita in 2015. In the Least Developed Countries in 2021, it was 39 watts per capita, up from 28 watts in 2015. In the Small Island Developing States, renewable energy capacity was 89 watts per capita in 2021, up from 55 watts in 2015.

SDG Target #7.a

SDG #7 is to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”

Within SDG #7 are 5 targets, of which we here focus on Target 7.a:

By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology

Target 7.a has one indicator:

  • Indicator 7.a.1: International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid systems

The International Renewable Energy Agency tracks financing of aid for renewable energy.

In 2021, OECD country donors gave $10 billion as foreign aid intended for clean energy. Not only is this amount down from the 2017 peak of $27 billion, it’s also a decrease from the 2015 amount of $12 billion. It’s thus not on track to “enhance international cooperation” in the form of aid for renewable energy, as this target asks of us.