SDG Target #7.3

SDG #7 is to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”

Within SDG #7 are 5 targets, of which we here focus on Target 7.3:

By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency

Target 7.3 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 7.3.1: Energy intensity measured in terms of primary energy and GDP 

The global energy intensity in 2020 was $4.54 of economic value produced per megajoule of energy used. This was down a little from the figure at the adoption of the SDGs in 2015 of $4.83 per megajoule. But it's still far from the doubling of improvement required for this target, which would be a halving of the energy intensity. 

SDG Target #7.2

SDG #7 is to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”

Within SDG #7 are 5 targets, of which we here focus on Target 7.2:

By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services

Target 7.2 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 7.2.1: Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption 

The renewable energy share in final energy consumption worldwide is 19% using 2020 data, far from this target’s aim of universal access to move away from the emission of carbon dioxide.

SDG Target #7.1

SDG #7 is to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”

Within SDG #6 are 5 targets, of which we here focus on Target 7.1:

By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services

Target 7.1 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 7.1.1: Proportion of population with access to electricity

  • Indicator 7.1.2: Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology 

The obvious importance of electricity access lies as it’s a marker of living standards, as well as a necessity for health.

The World Bank has measured access to electricity worldwide to be 91% as of 2021. To break this up, Europe and Central Asia have full electrification, as do the high-income and the upper-middle income countries. The regions of the Middle East and North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia and the Pacific have between 97-98%. The lower-middle income countries have a similar proportion to the global population. 45% in low-income countries have electricity. 

As we saw in Target 3.9, air pollution from stoves burning solid cooking fuels in households in some developing countries is a health risk. By contrast, in high-income countries, households tend to use cooking and energy methods not posing a health risk. Dirty fuels also pose affect the environment and contribute to climate change.

The World Health Organization estimates access to clean cooking fuels to be 71% of the world population.

SDG Target #6.b

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.b:

Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management 

Target 6.b has one indicator:

  • Indicator 6.b.1: Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management

The data for this target draws from UN Water’s Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS). The World Health Organization puts this assessment into effect.

We’re here looking at water at the local government level. A handy tool is the OECD’s Water Governance Indicator Framework to assess policies. This framework is part of the OECD’s water program, which advises governments on water policies. The OECD also has 12 Principles on Water Governance it recommends for governments.

As of 2019, 70% of countries had in place policies and procedures for community participation in water and sanitation.

SDG Target #6.a

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.a:

By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies

Target 6.a has one indicator:

  • Indicator 6.a.1: Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is part of a government-coordinated spending plan  

Using the OECD’s Creditor Reporting System, we can disaggregate development flows by type. In this instance, we want to separate out water aid. 

Let's look at ODA spent on water as part of a government’s budget. As of 2021, the biggest spender was India, with $420 million. Following was Vietnam and Cambodia, with $413 million and $309 million, then Bangladesh with $284 million and Egypt with $261 million.

SDG Target #6.6.

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.6:

By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes

Target 6.6 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 6.6.1: Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time 

This target introduces us to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. The Contracting Parties to this treaty agreed to it in Ramsar, Iran in 1971. The definition of wetland according to the convention are:

“areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres…may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetland.”

Such is the nature of some types of wetlands, such as a fen, they’ve taken millennia to form, and once damaged, we cannot restore them with ease. The Ramsar categorises wetlands into three types: on the coast in marine environments, inland, and human made. The convention also lists those wetlands which have international importance. Each of the Convention's Contracting Parties nominated these within their territory.

A report taking stock of the state of the world’s wetlands - the year of the SDGs adoption - deemed 45% of wetlands degraded. We've lost 87% altogether since the start of the 20th century Among the costs we bear for this is the loss of regulating services wetland areas offer. 

The powers of Earth and GIS observation technologies utilising satellites to allow us to take stock of the planet’s Earth systems.

We can measure the water quality by the amount of sediment, plankton and organic matter is in the body of water, or how much biomass is being collected 

For this target, we measure the changes in the extent of wetland ecosystems are in square kilometres. There’s even a website for Indicator 6.6.1 to track the health of freshwater ecosystems for this: sdg661.app. Other similar endeavours include:

As of 2022, lakes and rivers cover 0.02% of the world’s land, a number we want to make sure we maintain or increase for the purposes of this target. Global wetlands coverage was 4% as of 2017. The change in mangrove area from a 2000 baseline was a reversal of 3%, little changed from the start of the SDG period in 2015.

SDG Target #6.5

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.5:

By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate

Target 6.5 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 6.5.1: Degree of integrated water resources management 

  • Indicator 6.5.2: Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation 

What is integrated water resources management (IWRM)? In some ways, it’s reflective of the concept of sustainable development as it relates to water. It means to devise and put into effect a system which manages water resources with several considerations. It needs to consider the economic, social, and in particular the environmental aspects. At the governmental level, it can involve the coordination of several ministries. These might include the portfolios of water, planning, land, agriculture, and rural development.

Managing water resources is of utmost importance for the environment. But it also has large social, and economic implications in water scarce regions such as Western Asia and Africa. Every drop seems to count to ensure dignity and prosperity in these regions.

The Global Water Partnership, a network of over 3000 water organisations, and DHI, support such efforts. Managing water is relevant not only at the national level, but across countries within regions sharing a common border. It likewise has importance across administrative divisions within countries. 

This issue of water resources shared across borders brings us to Indicator 6.5.2. This is relevant whether a shared water body is visible on the surface, or groundwater in an aquifer. This topic seems ripe for conflict in water scare regions, and as such, competing interests need managing. International treaties between nations on the sustainable use of transboundary freshwater aid this. The most prominent example is the 1997 Water Convention.

The degree to which an integrated water resources management plan is in effect across all countries worldwide is 54% as of 2020. France and Singapore lead with 100% implementation. A half-dozen countries score 0, among them Argentina, Canada, and Venezuela.

41% of global aquifers have transboundary basins with arrangements to cooperate over water as of 2022. 65% of river and lake basins have such coverage, with 58% for both combined.

SDG Target #6.4

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.4:

By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity

Target 6.4 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 6.4.1: Change in water-use efficiency over time

  • Indicator 6.4.2: Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources 

It’s valuable to consider all the different activities which call upon water resources. These include the immense requirements of the primary industries of agriculture and resource extraction. Then there’s the secondary sectors of manufacturing, construction, plus the supply of power, as well as sewerage and waste treatment, as well as domestic water supply.

Water use efficiency is a measure in monetary terms, denominated in US dollars per cubic metre. At the country level, this means we take the GDP, and divide it by the number of cubic metres of freshwater withdrawn, to give us the water efficiency.

Worldwide, water efficiency in 2020 was $21 per cubic metre. Let's compare this figure for the best and worst performers among countries with data. The tiny country of Luxembourg had $1,379 per cubic metre  the most water efficient, and Madagascar was the worst with $0.91/m3.

We become at risk of water stress when we withdraw freshwater at a rate faster than it can renew, minus what the environment needs. As of 2020, there’s 42 billion cubic metres of renewable water in the world, with an annual freshwater withdrawal rate of 3.8 billion cubic metres. We can calculate this to tell us how water stressed a country is. First, we take the amount of freshwater withdrawn (measured in cubic metres). We then divide this by the total renewable freshwater, minus the environment requirements. After multiplying by 100, this gives us a percentage of water stress, which if greater than 75%, is high. Besides affecting our drinking water supply and economic sectors, this threatens food security.

Measured at the global level, the level of water stress is 18% as of 2020. This level hasn't changed since 2015, although the target has asked us to reduce those living with water scarcity. Several countries even have a critical water stress percentage greater than 100. This occurs when we withdraw freshwater at a greater rate than the renewable sources can replenish. These countries span the Sahara, across the Mideast into Central Asia. Kuwait’s water efficiency percentage is a stratospheric 3,850%, followed by 1,587% in UAE and 974% in Saudi Arabia. Not only has Kuwait not decreased its water scarcity, its doubled it since 2000.

SDG Target #6.3

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.3:

By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally

Target 6.3 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 6.3.1: Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated

  • Indicator 6.3.2: Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality 

The proportion of treated domestic wastewater worldwide stands at 57% as of 2022. Very few countries have enough data to report treatment for industrial wastewater.

The global proportion of water bodies with good water quality stands at 71% as of 2020.

SDG Target #6.2

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.2:

By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations

Target 6.2 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 6.2.1: Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a handwashing facility with soap and water 

UNICEF and the World Health Organization have teamed up to report the progress on this issue under the banner of the JMP. This stands for the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH).

The worldwide proportion of people with access to sanitation facilities is 56% as of 2022 and 75% for handwashing facilities.

SDG Target #6.1

SDG #6 is to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”

Within SDG #6 are 8 targets, of which we here focus on Target 6.1:

By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all

Target 6.1 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 6.1.1: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services

SDG #6 introduces us to UN Water, coordinating the efforts of all the other UN agencies on the topic of water and sanitation. WHO’s guidelines inform the definition for drinking water quality. Access to safe water is essential to health and disease prevention and lowering the barriers to access is a human right.

The worldwide access to safe drinking water as of 2022 was 72%. Central African Republic had the lowest access among countries with data, with only 6%. Much of this gap is due to where one lives, whereby worldwide, 81% of the urban population have access, but only 62% for those living in rural locations.

SDG Target #5.c

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.c:

Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

Target 5.c has one indicator:

  • Indicator 5.c.1: Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women’s empowerment 

Are governments of countries putting their money where their mouth is by putting gender equality and women’s empowerment in law? Are they allocating public finances to put such laws into effect? Are the finance ministries of governments held accountable by the populace to instil equality? Is there an office or ministry, given a budget to spend on such policies in favour of women? If it isn't budgeted for, can a government claim women’s development to be a priority?

As of 2021, the global proportion of countries with systems to track public expenditure on gender equality stands at 26%.

SDG Target #5.b

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.b:

Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women

Target 5.b has one indicator:

  • Indicator 5.b.1: Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex 

The definition for the purposes of measurement is access via a public switched telephone network.

As of 2022, 68% of women own a mobile phone in contrast to 77% of men. Among countries with data, all women in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and UAE have mobiles, and only 11% of women in Burundi have access.

SDG Target #5.a

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.a:

Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws

Target 5.a has two indicators:

  • Indicator 5.a.1: (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure

  • Indicator 5.a.2: Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control

Indicator 5.a.1 stipulates to disaggregate the data for the indicator by type of tenure. These types include public, private, communal, indigenous, customary, and informal.

Among the countries with data as of 2022, most are developing countries. Cambodia leads with 88% of women having secure agricultural land rights and 54% of the share of agricultural landowners. Malawi has the largest share with 56%, with Pakistan the least among those with data at 6%.

Indicator 5.a.2 measures gender equality of land ownership rights enshrined in law. Among those countries with data, Ethiopia and Lithuania have the highest guarantees. The lowest guarantees in the legal frameworks for equal land ownership are in Lebanon and Mauritania.

SDG Target #5.6

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.6:

Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences 

Target 5.6 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 5.6.1: Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care

  • Indicator 5.6.2: Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education 

This target introduces us to the topics of population as it relates to women. This issue, as well as sexual and reproductive health and rights, is overseen at the UN level by the UNFPA (UN Population Fund). From this arises the question for women worldwide on who’s making the decision about their own healthcare. Do women have the choice to use contraceptives, and can they refuse sex with a partner if they don’t want to? The fertility rates are highest in these countries, yet so are the child mortality rates. Some families choose to have more children to compensate. Many women in such regions have choice deprived of them around their reproductive decisions. But development allows women to delay childbirth and reduces the child mortality and fertility rates. It's also easier to meet the existing population’s basic needs when there’s less mouths to share it with.

Target #5.6 mentions to International Conference on Population and Development. This 1994 UNFPA conference addressed the pressures of population, fertility, and development. The ICPD also highlighted the issue of women’s rights to their own decision-making on matters relating to sex and reproduction. 

This extends to the laws in effect in respective countries upholding such rights. These include matters of:

  • Maternity care

  • Contraception and family planning, including the topic of the morning after pill

  • Sex education, including the teaching of consent

  • HIV and HPV

  • Abortion

  • Consideration of the age children and adolescents can consent to their own medical treatment

  • Child sexual exploitation

This target also mentions the Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action, mentioned already in this series in Target 5.1.

56% of women worldwide make their own informed decisions about sexual relations and contraceptive use. The lowest rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, where only 37% of women face such choices.

76% of countries have laws as of 2022 ensuring the right to access sexual and reproductive health care for both sexes.

SDG Target #5.5

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.5:

Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life

Target 5.5 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 5.5.1: Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local governments 

  • Indicator 5.5.2: Proportion of women in managerial positions 

Indicator 5.5.1 introduces us to the work of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). The IPU is independent of the UN, but the two work together. Indicator 5.5.1 is split into two levels of governance: national parliaments and local governments. For the countries with data, UN Women reports 3 million elected to local government. 

As of 2023, the global share of women in parliamentary seats is 26%, with the most in Rwanda, with 61%. For the same in local government, the global figure is 35%, the largest share being in Antigua and Barbuda.

Let's turn from positions of leadership in government to the world of work and the labour force for the second indicator for Target 5.5. We now measure what share of women have a managerial occupation. Of the countries with data, Jordan has the largest share of women in senior and middle management positions with 57%. The worldwide share of organisations with the top manager being female is 18%, with the greatest share of countries with data in Thailand (64%).

SDG Target #5.4

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.4:

Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate 

Target 5.4 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 5.4.1: Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location

Unemployed individuals, or those performing unpaid work, are seldom recognised for their contribution. They’re underutilised in the use of their time from an economic and social perspective. This has relevance when considering gender across the globe.

Many countries don’t have data for this indicator. Of the countries with data, the biggest disparity between the sexes in time spent on unpaid work is Mexico. In 2022, Mexican men spent 11% of their time each day on unpaid work, and women 27%. Indicator 5.4.1 asks of us to disaggregate the data by location. To separate Mexico’s 2019 data, 30% of the time of rural women was unpaid work compared to 26% for urban women. Rural men spent 10% of their time on unpaid work, and 11% for urban men in Mexico.

SDG Target #5.3

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.3:

Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation 

Target 5.3 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 5.3.1: Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18

  • Indicator 5.3.2: Proportion of girls and women aged 15–49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation, by age

The worldwide proportion of women married before age 15 was 4% as of 2022. We don’t have worldwide data for women married under age 18. But among countries with data, the highest rates were in Niger, where 76% of women married before 18.

Unpleasant as it may to be to discuss, imagine how much worse it could be to experience female genital mutilation. 230 million females experience this practice, often when girls are not yet adults.

UN agencies have collaborated to present the statement entitled Eliminating female genital mutilation. The statement approaches the topic from many perspectives:

  • health

  • human rights

  • development

  • social and cultural practices

  • children’s rights

  • women’s rights

  • reproductive rights.

The countries with rates of female genital mutilation greater than 80% of the female population as of 2020 include:

  • Mali

  • Guinea

  • Sierra Leone

  • Egypt

  • Sudan

  • Eritrea

  • Somalia (99% rate)

SDG Target #5.2

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.2:

Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

Target 5.2 has two indicators:

  • Indicator 5.2.1: Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age

  • Indicator 5.2.2: Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence

This target focuses on violence against women and intimate partner violence. These are not only crimes in many countries, but violations of human rights agreed upon at the international level in the form of treaties. Looked at from a public health perspective, the threat it poses to the health of a population is of pandemic proportions. Let’s look at some of the forms countries enshrine and affirm this right. 

The most relevant to this topic is the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1993. This violence can be physical, sexual, or psychological, whether or not committed by an intimate partner.

The same principles are also reflected in the following human rights agreements:

  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration is international law for those who signed and ratified via two treaties adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1966:

    • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. All but 20 countries are states parties. Those who’ve not acted include South Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, Bhutan, Malaysia, Myanmar, with China signing but not ratifying.

    • International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In this instance the US is the main holdout from becoming a state party, having signed but not ratified. Saudi Arabia, the same Gulf states, Malaysia, and Myanmar again haven’t signed. Botswana, Mozambique and about 20 other smaller countries also haven't signed or ratified.

  • In the previous target, we already looked at the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

  • Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. The General Assembly adopted this treaty in 1984. The largest country which isn't a state party is India, which has signed but not ratified. Other non-signatories are Bangladesh, Eswatini, Iran, Myanmar, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea and other smaller countries.

The advancement of women has been a focus of the UN since the UN Decade for Women from 1975-85. For 68 annual sessions, as of 2024, the UN Women’s Commission on the Status of Women has met to advance women’s empowerment and gender equality.

How prevalent is the crime of violence against women worldwide, across regions and countries? How do we know? Much violence against women occurs out of sight, behind closed doors. For this information, we can look to three main international sources. Several UN agencies work together to collate this data for measurement. 10% of women over 15-years-old worldwide experienced physical or sexual violence from an intimate partner in the past 12 months. The highest proportions were in Democratic Republic of Congo and Afghanistan, both reporting above 30%.

SDG Target #5.1

SDG #5 is to “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”

Within SDG #5 are 9 targets, of which we here focus on Target 5.1:

End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere

Target 5.1 has one indicator:

  • Indicator 5.1.1: Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of sex 

This target will introduce us to UN Women, the UN body charged with the task of achieving gender equality, one of the pillars of development. Many developing countries need help to meet this target's aim. The high-income countries of the OECD can help developing countries to promote such standards. This is because of the intrinsic tie between gender inequality and sustainable development.

What do countries need to put such legal frameworks into effect? Countries need to promote the adoption of laws affecting the life of women, then enforce and track them. Such laws need to cover the topics of violence against women. They also need to address employment, to ensure women enjoy economic benefits, and also marriage and family. 

What is the primary guiding principle in considering legal frameworks to end discrimination? Let's look to Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). It defines discrimination against women as:  

“...distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”

The States Parties to the CEDAW are all countries except the US, Iran, Sudan, Somalia, Palau (which is in free association with the US) and Tonga.

Another landmark guidance for intergovernmental progress in advancing gender equality occurred in Beijing. It's known as Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted in 1995 and affirmed five years later in Beijing in 2000.

Worldwide, as of 2022, 70% of countries have a legal framework addressing gender equality. 78% of countries have legal frameworks addressing violence against women as of 2022. 76% have legal frameworks addressing gender equality as it relates to employment and economic benefits. 79% of countries have legal frameworks addressing gender in relation to marriage and family.