SDG Target #16.a

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.a:

Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime

Target 16.a has one indicator:

• Indicator 16.a.1: Existence of independent national human rights institutions in compliance with the Paris Principles

The Paris Principles are the basic standards for national human rights institutions. GANHRI (Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions) is the accrediting body.

The share of countries with such accreditation worldwide is 42% as of 2021, up from 35% in 2015. In developing countries, as of 2019, this is 34%, up a couple percentage points since 2015.

SDG Target #16.10

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.10:

Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements

Target 16.10 has two indicators:

• Indicator 16.10.1: Number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates in the previous 12 months

• Indicator 16.10.2: Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information

The number of verified cases of killings of journalists, human rights defenders and trade unionists was 320 in 2021. In the SDG period, this number peaked in 2018 with 476 and was 349 in 2015, the year of the SDGs’ adoption.

The number of countries which adopted and implemented access to information laws and/or policies was 127 as of 2022.

SDG Target #16.9

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.9:

By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration

Target 16.9 has one indicator:

• Indicator 16.9.1: Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with a civil authority, by age

The countries with the lowest rates of registered births as of 2022 were in the Horn of Africa, with Ethiopia and Somalia, each with less than 6%. The worldwide share as of 2018 was 72% of registered births.

SDG Target #16.8

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.8:

Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance

Target 16.8 has one indicator:

• Indicator 16.8.1: Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations

Target 16.8 mirrors Target 10.6 in its focus on participation of developing countries in international organisations. Indicator 16.8.1 uses the same institutions as its measure, making its results a duplicate of 10.6.1. 

SDG Target #16.7

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.7:

Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels

Target 16.7 has two indicators:

• Indicator 16.7.1: Proportions of positions in national and local institutions, including (a) the legislatures; (b) the public service; and (c) the judiciary, compared to national distributions, by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups

• Indicator 16.7.2: Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group

The UN Security Council has passed resolutions relating to the inclusion of young people and women in decision-making. This reflects how each of these groups play a key role in peace. For women, this is in the role women play in conflict prevention and peacemaking. Empowered youth offer stability. Without inclusion in decision-making, youth can be vulnerable to radicalisation.

Such inclusion in governance, for females, youth, and the disabled - rather than mere tokenism - aids the development of countries.

Citizens need to feel as though their governments - whether national or subnational - are open. They need to have an opportunity to engage with them, have their say, and see their political views reflected in the processes. Citizens need to be able to scrutinise government performance and functioning, as well as of its individual members. This in turn affects whether citizens feel they ought to carry out their own civic responsibility.

Inclusion is reflected in elections as a member of parliament, or even holding the chair of parliamentary committee. It also extends to employment in the public sector, whether at the national, state, or local level of government. This can be in occupations like a manager, professional, technicians or clerical staff. But it also includes front-line service occupations like the police, healthcare, and education.

The countries with the highest percentages of women in single, or the lower chamber of bicameral, parliaments were:

• Nicaragua

• Cuba

• Rwanda

Each had proportions greater than half. Since the adoption of the SDGs in 2015, the global share has risen from 21% to 26%

The highest female representation in the upper chamber was in Canada, Australia, and Bolivia. The global percentage was a little over half.

The judiciary includes judicial officers such as magistrates and registrars, as well as court services. Lithuania has the highest female representation, but only a couple dozen countries have data for this measure.

SDG Target #16.6

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.6:

Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels

Target 16.6 has two indicators:

• Indicator 16.6.1: Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by sector (or by budget codes or similar)

• Indicator 16.6.2: Proportion of population satisfied with their last experience of public services

The first indicator considers the degree to which the original approved budget has kept within the budgeted amount. Although there are some data gaps from missing countries, only about a dozen countries went over budget in 2022, and a similar number under.

For indicator 16.6.2, only a half-dozen countries have reported for satisfaction of public services in 2022.

SDG Target #16.5

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.5:

Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms

Target 16.5 has two indicators:

• Indicator 16.5.1: Proportion of persons who had at least one contact with a public official and who paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials, during the previous 12 months

• Indicator 16.5.2: Proportion of businesses that had at least one contact with a public official and that paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials during the previous 12 months

Many countries across the Middle East and North Africa don’t have data for indicator 16.5.1, nor does China. Among other countries with data as of 2021, the highest prevalence of bribery is in Democratic Republic of Congo. 80% of Congolese reported paying a bribe, or were asked to, by a public official.

Much less countries have reported data for bribery experienced by businesses at the hands of government. Among countries with data, Iraq has the highest prevalence. The 2021 worldwide estimate for businesses who’ve paid a bribe, or were asked to in the past year was 15%.

SDG Target #16.4

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.4:

By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime

Target 16.4 has two indicators:

• Indicator 16.4.1: Total value of inward and outward illicit financial flows (in current United States dollars)

• Indicator 16.4.2: Proportion of seized, found or surrendered arms whose illicit origin or context has been traced or established by a competent authority in line with international instruments

Illicit financial flows are money movements which fit into a variety of categories of criminality. This may be due to where the money's originated, whether it's avoiding taxation, or what its financing.

Of relevance to the first indicator is the UN Convention Against Corruption. All member states of the UN are party to this treaty except Eritrea and North Korea, and Syria has signed but not ratified.

For the second indicator, one of the relevant UN bodies is the UN Office for Disarmament Affairs. Also of relevance is the work of Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization), which isn’t part of the UN System.

There’s an unfortunate great dearth of data for both indicators of this target.

SDG Target #16.3

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.3:

Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all

Target 16.3 has three indicators:

• Indicator 16.3.1: Proportion of victims of (a) physical, (b) psychological and/or (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict resolution mechanisms

• Indicator 16.3.2: Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population

• Indicator 16.3.3: Proportion of the population who have experienced a dispute in the past two years and who accessed a formal or informal dispute resolution mechanism, by type of mechanism

An insufficient number of countries have supplied data to offer a global snapshot for the first indicator of this target. The number of countries reporting for the third indicator as of 2022 is dismal.

There are some notable absences from countries reporting data on the second indicator. But for those with data, the highest rates as of 2021 are in Gabon and Bangladesh, which have over 80% of their prison population unsentenced.

SDG Target #16.2

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.2:

End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children

Target 16.2 has three indicators:

• Indicator 16.2.1: Proportion of children aged 1–17 years who experienced any physical punishment and/or psychological aggression by caregivers in the past month

• Indicator 16.2.2: Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex, age and form of exploitation

• Indicator 16.2.3: Proportion of young women and men aged 18–29 years who experienced sexual violence by age 18

We explored the UN Convention on Transnational Crime in earlier targets. All countries have ratified this except Iran, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Congo, South Sudan and two Pacific nations. One of the protocols to this convention relates to human trafficking. It's focused especially on children and women, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2000. In 2010, the UN also adopted the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons.

There are plentiful regional initiatives of countries collaborating to combat trafficking. There are also national efforts, and those under the auspices of UN Office on Drugs and Crime. This includes the illegal trafficking of human organs and tissues for transplants, or of humans for the purposes of such.

79% of children had experienced physical punishment and/or psychological aggression worldwide.

The highest number of human trafficking victims were in India and the UK, both with above 1000 detected. Many countries which could be at risk are missing data for this indicator as of 2021. Indicator 16.2.2 asks us to disaggregate by sex and age. The biggest disparities in sex among countries with data separated by sex were in Turkey. In Turkey, trafficking of girls was more than tenfold. This number was fivefold in the UK. In Tunisia, the opposite was true, with six times as many boys trafficked as girls. For trafficked victims over 18, several countries with data had more than five times as many women trafficked as men. These include Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Italy, and Uzbekistan. Latvia, Bulgaria, and Ireland had close to five times as many men as women trafficked.

A great many countries are missing data for the proportion of young women who experienced sexual violence before age 18. The highest rates were in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mexico and Trinidad & Tobago, with rates higher than 1 in 10. The worldwide figure as of 2021 was 3%. Few countries reported data for men who experienced sexual violence before age 18.

SDG Target #16.1

SDG #16 is to “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”

Within SDG #16 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 16.1:

Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere

Target 16.1 has four indicators:

• Indicator 16.1.1: Number of victims of intentional homicide per 100,000 population, by sex and age

• Indicator 16.1.2: Conflict-related deaths per 100,000 population, by sex, age and cause

• Indicator 16.1.3: Proportion of population subjected to (a) physical violence, (b) psychological violence and/or (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months

• Indicator 16.1.4: Proportion of population that feel safe walking alone around the area they live after dark

Among countries with data, the highest homicide rate is in Jamaica, with 52 per 100,000 population. The worldwide homicide rate as of 2021 was 5 per 100,000, showing no reduction since 2015.

The highest number of conflict-related deaths in 2022 was in Ethiopia (102,000), followed by Ukraine (82,000) and Mexico (14,000)

Few countries have data for the third indicator relating to exposure to different forms of violence. There’s also a large data gap for the measure of feeling safe walking alone at night. The countries reporting the lowest proportions for this as of 2021 were South Africa, Chile, and Mexico (32-38% of population).

SDG Target #15.c

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.c:

Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities

Target 15.c has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.c.1: Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked

This target recalls Target #15.7 focused on the illegal wildlife trade. Again, the centrality of the CITES treaty governs the actions of countries as it relates to such practices. Despite the articulation of an indicator, as of 2024, there’s still insufficient data to give us a sense of whether the world is on track for this target.

SDG Target #15.b

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.b:

Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation

Target 15.b has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.b.1: (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments

Target 15.b is like the previous target. They differ in their focus on sustainable forest management in contrast to biodiversity. Still, the indicators across both targets are the same.

SDG Target #15.a

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.a:

Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems

Target 15.a has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.a.1: (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments

This target measures what level of aid from high-income donor countries of the OECD goes toward biodiversity. The biggest recipient as of 2021 is Colombia, receiving $909 million, followed by Mexico, Tanzania, and Indonesia.

The biggest donors for biodiversity foreign aid to developing countries were France and Germany. Each donated around $2.5 billion.

SDG Target #15.9

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.9:

By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts

Target 15.9 has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.9.1: (a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported towards these targets; and (b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 was part of the Convention on Biological Diversity. It included the 20 Aichi Targets. The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting is a framework used by the UN. This method allows for us to see both the impact on the economy from the environment and vice versa. It's also a system to track changes in the health of the environment.

The requisite planning as called for by Target 15.9 upon countries draws on article 6 of the Convention on Biological Diversity. This asks parties to develop national strategies for conservation.

For national adoption of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting, there’s a split across the globe as of 2022. There's also little uniformity or pattern between those who’ve implemented the framework or not.

SDG Target #15.8

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.8:

By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species

Target 15.8 has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.8.1: Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species

In the period 2010 to 2020, Aichi Biodiversity Target #9 guided all countries party to the Convention on Biological Diversity:

By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment. 

As part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, each party has a national biodiversity strategy and action plan (NBSAP). By comparing this plan to Aichi Target #9, we can get a sense of their progress toward indicator 15.8.1. This alignment was widespread across parties to the convention with a dozen or so exceptions as of 2020, including the US, which isn’t a party.

We can measure whether a country is resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species. One of the ways we can is to look at which have allocated a budget towards this end. On this measure, there’s not much of a pattern on which countries have or not as of 2022.

SDG Target #15.6

SDG #15 is to “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.6:

Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed 

Target 15.6 has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.6.1: Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits

The key treaty of relevance for this target is the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

The intention for Contracting Party countries to the treaty is to provide access to and transfer of knowledge and materials.

The Contracting Parties to the treaty use a platform called the ABSCH (Access and Benefit Sharing Cleating House) to report. ABSCH was at the initiative of the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing. The protocol is an addition to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It's named after the Japanese city of its adoption by the convention's parties, aiming for access to genetic resources to be fair.

There’s little uniformity among the Contracting Parties on who’s adopted relevant legislation. Around only 137 of the 192 UN member states have ratified the Nagoya Protocol altogether. By contrast, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture has 150 parties.

SDG Target #15.7

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.7:

Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products 

Target 15.7 has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.7.1: Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked 

The key treaty relevant to this target is the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). Although each country is to report on such trade to CITES each year, as of 2024, there’s still insufficient data for this indicator.

SDG Target #15.5

SDG #15 is to “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.5:

Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species

Target 15.5 has one indicator:

• Indicator 15.5.1: Red List Index

The Red List Index is part of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The Red List Index tracks trends for extinction risk of each species and progress on biodiversity targets. The IUCN is the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Too many species face the threat of extinction from a plethora of causes. Examples include invasive alien species, climate change or plain destruction at the hands of human drivers. Moreover, the rate of decline of a great wealth of species is startling. 

The Red List considers in its criteria whether:

• a species faces endangerment in its existing population

• the speed at which the population is declining

• how wide distributed its existing population is

• the extent to which pockets of the existing population of a species spread out from one another.

The categories of highest risk of extinction in the wild are:

• Vulnerable

• Endangered

• Critically Endangered.

At the other end of the spectrum is the conservation status of species the IUCN deem Least Concern. For these species, the health of populations, ecosystems and habitats are secure.

The Red List Index is a measure from 0 to 1, with zero suggesting all species are extinct. Measured across countries, the lowest index figure by a wide margin is in Mauritius, scoring 0.39 as of 2023. Following this is Sri Lanka, scoring 0.56. The worldwide 2023 Red List Index score is 0.72, unchanged since 2015. Thus, we've failed Target 15.5’s stated aim to protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species by 2020 and halt the loss of biodiversity.

SDG Target #15.4

SDG #15 is to “ Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”

Within SDG #15 are 12 targets, of which we here focus on Target 15.4:

By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development

Target 15.4 has two indicators:

• Indicator 15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity

• Indicator 15.4.2: (a) Mountain Green Cover Index and (b) proportion of degraded mountain land

The Mountain Green Cover Index measures changes in vegetation in mountain regions. Many countries worldwide have high proportions, exceeding 90% of mountain cover. Several of the Saharan and Sahel countries have the least vegetation on their mountains. Worldwide, the Mountain Green Cover Index stands at 78%. As of 2018, the countries with the largest share of degraded mountain land are Portugal, Tunisia, Eswatini, and Vietnam. All have greater than 4% degradation. The worldwide proportion is less than 2%, a fractional increase since 2015.

The global coverage of protected areas in mountains of key biodiversity areas is 40% as of 2022, a minor increase from 38% from 2015.